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  1. OJIN Homepage
  2. Table of Contents
  3. Volume 6 - 2001
  4. Number 2: May 2001
  5. Articles on Previously Published Topics
  6. Doctoral Education Americas

Nursing Doctoral Education in the Americas

  • Shaké Ketefian, EdD, RN, FAAN
    Shaké Ketefian, EdD, RN, FAAN

    Shaké Ketefian, EdD, RN, FAAN, Professor; Director of Doctoral/Postdoctoral Studies and International Affairs, University of Michigan, School of Nursing, 400 North Ingalls, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Dr. Ketefian is also the Chairperson of the International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing [URL: www.umich.edu/~inden/]

    Tel.: 734/764-9454; FAX: 734/763-6668.

  • Eloita Pereira Neves, DNSc, RN
    Eloita Pereira Neves, DNSc, RN

    Eloita Pereira Neves, DNSc, RN, is a former professor of nursing at the Nursing Doctoral Program - Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis SC and Visiting Professor, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rua 28 de Setembro 174 Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil

  • Maria Gaby Gutiérrez, PhD, RN
    Maria Gaby Gutiérrez, PhD, RN

    Maria Gaby Gutiérrez, PhD, RN, is a representative of nursing at CAPES, Ministry of Education - Coordination of Higher Education and a Professor, at the Federal University of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Contents
Abstract

This paper deals with nursing doctoral education in the Americas. It provides an overview of existing doctoral programs in four countries where such research training is provided, namely, Canada and the United States in North America, Brazil and Venezuela in South America. For each country, patterns of education are described, including curriculum elements, students, research training, the dissertation, quality monitoring issues, and trends that may be emerging. Commonalities and differences are then identified, and recommendations are presented for those countries developing doctoral education; the potential for collaboration is highlighted between countries with extensive experience in doctoral education and those that are at the beginning stages of development.

Key words: Nursing doctoral education in the Americas; International doctoral education; Patterns of doctoral education

ThefollowingtwoarticlesinthisSpecialSectionfortheTopic"NursingDoctoralAroundtheWorld"initiatedialogueregardingDoctoralEducationWorldwide.

ShakéKetefian,EdD,RN,FAAN
EloitaPereiraNeves,DNSc,RN
MariaGabyGutiérrez,PhD,RN

Abstract

ThispaperdealswithnursingdoctoraleducationintheAmericas.Itprovidesanoverviewofexistingdoctoralprogramsinfourcountrieswheresuchresearchtrainingisprovided,namely,CanadaandtheUnitedStatesinNorthAmerica,BrazilandVenezuelainSouthAmerica.Foreachcountry,patternsofeducationaredescribed,includingcurriculumelements,students,researchtraining,thedissertation,qualitymonitoringissues,andtrendsthatmaybeemerging.Commonalitiesanddifferencesarethenidentified,andrecommendationsarepresentedforthosecountriesdevelopingdoctoraleducation;thepotentialforcollaborationishighlightedbetweencountrieswithextensiveexperienceindoctoraleducationandthosethatareatthebeginningstagesofdevelopment.

Citation:KetefianS.,NevesE.,GutiérrezM.(May31,2001)"NursingDoctoralEducationintheAmericas"OnlineJournalofIssuesinNursing.Vol.6 No.2.Availablewww.nursingworld.org//MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No2May01/ArticlePreviousTopic/DoctoralEducationAmericas.aspx

Keywords:NursingdoctoraleducationintheAmericas;Internationaldoctoraleducation;Patternsofdoctoraleducation

NursingDoctoralEducationintheAmericas

InreviewingthepictureofnursingdoctoraleducationintheregionoftheAmericas,onefindsapictureofextremes.Ontheonehand,theUnitedStateshasoffereddoctoralstudyinnursingsincethe1930s(Redman&Ketefian,1997),andnowhasoneofthemostadvancedandextensivesystemsintheworld.Ontheother,anumberofcountrieswithinSouthAmericaarenowmakingplanstoofferdoctoralstudyandareintheexploratorystages.Inthispaperwewillprovideanoverviewofpatternsofeducationforexistingdoctoralprogramsinfourcountries,willreviewtrendsnowshapingforthenextdecade,andmakerecommendationsforcountriesnowconsideringtheestablishmentofdoctoralprograms.

OverviewofDoctoralEducationinNursing

Inprovidinganoverviewofexistingdoctoralprograms,fourcountrieswillbeconsidered,asfollows:withinNorthAmerica,CanadaandtheUnitedStates;withinSouthAmerica,BrazilandVenezuela.Theywillbereviewedinthehistoricalorderinwhichdoctoraleducationwasinitiated.

UnitedStatesofAmerica

DoctoraleducationwasfirstinitiatedatTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity(1933),andatNewYorkUniversity(1934)withthedoctorofeducation(EdD)degree.Inthenext25yearsonlytwomoredoctoralprogramswereestablished.Sincethen,thegrowthofdoctoralprogramshasoccurredrapidly(Redman&Ketefian,1997).Atlastcount,over85institutionswereofferingdoctoraleducationfornurses.Approximately80percentofthedegreesarethePhD[researchdegree],withtheremainingbeingeitherDNS/DNScorEdD[professionaldegrees].Theresearchdoctorate,PhD,haswideacceptanceinhighereducation,andisawardedforthehighestattainmentofscholarshipinmostdisciplines.

Grace(1978)andMurphy(1981)havecharacterizedtheevolutionofdoctoralprogramsinphases.PhaseIincludededucationfornursesforfunctionalrolessuchaseducationoradministration(inceptionto1959);PhaseIIinvolvededucationfornursesinaseconddiscipline,referredtoasnursescientisttraining(1960-1969),althoughthisphasecontinuedwellintothe1970ssoenrolledstudentscouldcompletetheirstudies;PhaseIIIinvolvededucationinandofnursing(1970topresent).

Doctoraleducationbuildsonundergraduateandmaster'sstudy.

Itisgenerallyacceptedthatthepurposeofdoctoraleducationistopreparescientistswhoarequalifiedtocontributetothedevelopmentofnursingknowledgeandwhoareleadersinhealthcare,educationandotherenterprises.Thecurricularcomponentshaveevolvedovertheyears,andinmostcases,isnowfocusedonadvancedscientifictraininginthedisciplineofnursing.Itisgenerallyacceptedthatthepurposeofdoctoraleducationistopreparescientistswhoarequalifiedtocontributetothedevelopmentofnursingknowledgeandwhoareleadersinhealthcare,educationandotherenterprises.

Whilethereareprogramvariations,thecurricularcomponentsingeneralaresimilar;theseincluderesearchandtheoryinsubstantivenursingsubjects,researchmethodsanddesigns,theorybuildingandphilosophyofscience,cognatestudiesinrelatedfields,supervisedresearchpracticums,oneormoreresearchprojects,andadissertation.Graduatesofdoctoralprogramsteach,conductresearch,lead,ordirecthealth-relatedenterprises,andfunctioninsettingssuchasuniversities,policyarenas,privatebusinesses,andthelike.

Eachuniversitypositsitsownadmissioncriteria.Inthemain,applicantsarereviewedonthebasisofthefollowingcriteria:GraduateRecordExaminationscores,gradepointaverageattainedinundergraduateandmaster'sstudy,referenceletters,statementofgoals,andqualityofscholarlypaperstheysubmit.Someschoolsrequirepriornursingandprofessionalexperience,somedonot.Typically,entrantstodoctoralstudytendtobeintheirmid-tolatethirtiesandbythetimetheygraduatetheyareintheirearlyforties.Strategiesarenowbeingconsideredtoattractentrantstodoctoralstudyearlierintheircareers.

Theextentanddepthofresearchtrainingvariessomewhat,dependingontypeofinstitution.Programsthatresideinresearch-intensiveuniversitiesprovidethemostdemandingandextensiveresearchtraining.Thesubstantivenursingfocusofferedbyprogramsistypicallyafunctionofthefacultyandtheirownareasofresearch.Inresearchintensiveinstitutions,itisarequirementthatacriticalmassoffacultybeengagedinacommonareaofinvestigation,havetrackrecordsofscholarlyproductivity,andhavefundedprogramsofresearchbeforeacurricularfocuscanbeofferedtostudents.Suchfacultyengagementisthoughttoenhanceandenrichthelearningexperiencesofstudents.

ItistypicalwithintheUnitedStatesforstudentstogothroughaperiodofcoursework.Uponthecompletionofcourserequirements,studentsundergoanexaminationtodemonstratemasteryofthesubjectmatteroftheirinterest;uponsuccessfulcompletion,theyareadmittedtocandidacy,andcanproceedtothedissertationphase.Manyinstitutionshaveresearchexperienceorinternshiprequirementsforstudentstospendaperiodoftimelearningresearchhands-onastheyworkwithafacultymemberonongoingresearch,andcontinuethisinvolvementthroughouttheirprogramofstudy.Asaresultofthisapproachstudentstendtoaccumulateascholarlytrackrecordwhileindoctoralstudy,gainingvaluableexperienceinco-authoringpapersandscientificpresentationswiththeirmentors,preparingresearchproposals,posters,andthelike,whichservesthemingoodsteadupongraduation.

Dissertationtopicsselectedshouldbeinlinewiththecurricularfocusandfacultyexpertise,

Dissertationtopicsselectedshouldbeinlinewiththecurricularfocusandfacultyexpertise,besignificanttosociety,andpromisetomakeacontributiontonursingscience.besignificanttosociety,andpromisetomakeacontributiontonursingscienceaswellasdemonstratethatthestudenthasacquiredthenecessaryskillstobeabletofunctionasanindependentscholarupongraduation.Afacultycommitteethatincludesnursingaswellasnon-nursingfacultyfromotherdepartmentssupervisesanddeterminesthequalityofdissertations.Itsscholarlycharacter,theoreticalsoundness,scope,significance,andmethodologicalsophisticationareconsiderationsindeterminingquality.Anoraldefense,whichmayormaynotbepublic,culminatestheprocess.Publicationsbasedonthedissertationareencouraged.Doctoraleducationismonitoredbytheuniversities,althoughdaytodayresponsibilityfallstothenursingfaculty.Theuniversityinvolvementassuresthatnursingstudentsmeetallrequirementsoftheinstitution,similartostudentsinotherfields.

Manydoctoralstudentsstudyonapart-timebasis,althoughtheratioofpart-timetofull-timestudentsvariesgreatlywithindoctoralprograms.Thenationalaveragefortimetodegree,frombeginningtocompletion,isfiveyears.

Atrendatpresentisforseveralinstitutionstocollaborate.Typically,theimpetusforthishascomefromgovernmentalbodiesforwhombudgetaryconsiderationsweighheavily,andcollaborativelyofferingdoctoralprogramsaredeemedmoreefficient.AnotherinterestingtrendisforcoursestobeofferedontheWorldWideWeb,(on-line)orusingotherdistancelearningtechnologies.Useofsuchtechnologieshasrenderedthegeographiclocationofthestudentirrelevant,andmanypotentialstudentsareattractedtoprogramsthatoffereithercoursesorentireprogramsthroughdistanceeducation.Ontheotherhand,someinstitutionshaveresisteduseofthesemodes,maintainingthatone-on-onerelationshipwiththefacultymentorisanindispensablepartofdoctoraleducationandwouldbecompromisedifthestudentwerenotoncampus.

Canada

ThefirstdoctoralprograminCanadawasofferedattheUniversityofAlbertain1991.

Animportantpartoftheapplicationinsomeschoolsisthepresentationofadetailedcareerplan,anddelineationofspecificresearchintereststobepursued,whichshouldbecongruentwiththefocusoftheparticularprogram.Thecountrynowhassixinstitutions[researchuniversities]offeringdoctoralprogramsinnursing.Thepurposeofdoctoralstudyistoprepareindividualswhoarecapableofdevelopingandtestingknowledge,andpursuingscholarship.Applicantsmustpossessamaster'sdegreeinnursingduringwhichtheyhaveconductedaresearch-basedthesis,andhaveasoundnursingbackground;theymusthaveastrongacademicbackgroundasindicatedbygradepointaveragesattained,havedemonstrablepotentialandastrongcommitmenttonursingresearch,verifiedthroughreferenceletters.Animportantpartoftheapplicationinsomeschoolsisthepresentationofadetailedcareerplan,anddelineationofspecificresearchintereststobepursued,whichshouldbecongruentwiththefocusoftheparticularprogram.Determinationofafacultysupervisorismadepriortoadmission.

Theamountandtypeofcourseworkvaryacrosstheseschools,andevenwithinschools,dependingonstudentbackground,experience,andcareergoals.Studentsarerequiredtotakecoursesinresearchmethodsanddesigns,theorydevelopment,andthephilosophicalbasisofnursingscience.Thesupervisorycommitteemayrecommendothernursingornon-nursingcourses.Acomprehensiveexaminationistakenwithinaspecifiedperiodfromentryintotheprogramoratcompletionofcoursework.Thisexamistypicallymadeofseveralmajorpapers.Theexaminingcommitteemaybeacombinationofnursingandotheruniversityfaculty.

Adissertationisrequired.Thepurposeistocontributetothescienceofnursingand/ordemonstrateabilitytodevelopnewmethodologyoradvanceexistingmethodsbyapplyingthemwithinanewareaofhealthcareornursingresearch.Anoraldefenseofthethesis/dissertationisrequired.Thefacultysupervisoristheprimaryresourceforthestudent.Alongwithafacultycommittee,thestudentisguidedthroughouttheprogramofstudyinselectingappropriatecoursesandotherlearningexperiences;thecommitteemustapprovethedissertationproposal,andassuresthatthestudenthasacquiredtheneededskillstocarryouttheresearch,anddeterminestheexistenceofresourcesneededtocarryoutthestudy.Thecommitteemonitorsthequalityoftheresearch,anditsapprovalofthethesisdesignatessatisfactorycompletion.Thesupervisingcommitteeiscomprisedofmembersfromnursingandotherdisciplines.Membersoutsideoftheuniversitymaybenominatedifindicated.

Thedoctoralprogramsareofferedwithintheoveralluniversityrequirementsinthatstudentsmustmeetthesamerequirementsasstudentsinotherdisciplines.Theuniversitiesprovideoverallqualitymonitoringmechanismsundertheumbrellaofagraduateschool.AlldoctoralprogramsinCanadaarelocatedwithinresearchuniversitieswheredoctoratesinmanyotherfieldsarealsooffered.

SomeuniversitiesinCanadaareexperimentingwithflexibleoptionsandintroducingnon-traditionallearningmodalitiesthatenablestudentstocompletedegreerequirementsthroughcombinationsofon-campusandoff-campuslearningexperiences.

Brazil

Brazilbeganofferingdoctoraleducationinnursingin1981throughaninter-institutionaldoctoralprogram,whichwasajointventurebetweentwouniversities.Subsequently,additionalprogramswereestablished.Atpresent,ninenursingdoctoralprogramsareofferedinthecountry,byfiveuniversities,withsomeinstitutionsofferingmorethanoneprogram.Theyareintendedtoprepareindividualsforleadershippositionsinresearchandteaching,althoughotherareasofendeavorinhealthcareorgovernmentalagenciescanalsobechosen.

TheBraziliangovernmentalguidelinesfordoctoralprogramsdonotrequiremaster'sdegreeforadmission;however,allnursingdoctoralprogramshavechosentorequirethemaster'sforadmission.Eachdoctoralprogramestablishesitsowncriteriaforadmission.Thecriteriaformostprogramsinclude:apreliminaryresearchproposalthatisrelevantfordevelopingnursingknowledge;curriculumvitaethatdescribesrelevanceofapplicant'sprofessionalexperience,educationalbackground,researchactivities(publications),andproficiencyinEnglish(reading/comprehensionabilities).Thereisatendencytoadmityoungerstudents(earlythirties)whohaveexperienceintheteachingorpracticearena,andwhodemonstratepotentialforleadershipinresearch.

Thetypicaldoctoralprograminvolvesapproximatelytwoyearsofcourseworkandanequalamountoftimefordissertationwork.Oneassignedmajorprofessorisresponsibleforsupervisingstudentresearch,andforassuringthecompletionofstudiesintherequiredtimeframe.

ThecurricularcomponentsaresimilartotheU.S.A.,emphasizingepistemology,philosophyofscience,researchmethods,cognatestudiesinfieldsrelatedtothetopicofthedissertation,andsupervisedresearchpracticum.Itisexpectedthatthelevelofconceptualizationismoreadvancedthanatthemaster'sprogram;further,doctoralprogramsareexpectedtocontributetosciencedevelopmentinsubstantivenursingknowledge,andtotheimprovementinqualityofnursingpractice(oreducationandhealthcareservices).

Allprogramsrequireaqualifyingexambeforethecandidatecanimplementtheresearchproposalforthedissertation.Theproposalmustbedefendedbeforeacommitteeofthreetofivefacultymembers.

Doctoraldissertationresearchtopicsarederivedfromtheresearchlinesofinvestigationestablishedbytheresearchgroupscoordinatedbyfacultywhoarethemajorprofessorsofdoctoralstudents.Thoselinesofinvestigationencompassthemesrelatedtothefollowingareas:assistance,professional,andorganizationofnursingandhealthcareservices.

Thedoctoralprogramsdonotrequirepreviousresearchexperienceonthepartofthestudentbeforehe/shecanstartthedissertation.

Themembersoftheresearchgroupjointlydevelopaprogramofresearch.Facultymemberswithdoctoraldegreescoordinateoneoftheprojects,andareresponsiblefortheoverallproject.Thetrendisthatstudents,uponadmissiontotheprogram,becomeinvolvedinaresearchprojectandjoinoneoftheresearchgroups.Theresearchgroupsmayhaveoneormorefacultymemberswhoholddoctoraldegrees,facultywithmaster'sdegrees,nursesfromhealthcareagencieswhoholdmaster'sdegreesorspecializationinthetopicsofstudy,master's,doctoral,andundergraduatestudentsthatreceivescholarshipsorworkonavoluntarybasis.Themembersoftheresearchgroupjointlydevelopaprogramofresearch.Facultymemberswithdoctoraldegreescoordinateoneoftheprojects,andareresponsiblefortheoverallproject.Doctoralstudentsengageinresearchactivitieswithintheprojectsthatareguidedbytheirmajorprofessor.Throughthistypeofhands-onparticipationstudentshavetheopportunitytolearntoconductresearch,aswellasbepartofthedecisionsthatneedtobemadeonaregularbasistoresolveissues,aswellasdevelopleadershipskills.

Therequirementsforthedissertationarethatthestudenthascompletedcoursework,andthatthedissertation(calleddoctoralthesis)followsthetheoreticalandmethodologicalrigorexpected.Thegoalofthedissertationistocontributetothescientificbodyofknowledgeinnursing,andtoofferthestudentanopportunitytolearnhowtoconductscientificresearch.

Uponcompletionofthedissertationthecandidatedefendsitinapublicexam.Thestudentalsomustsubmitanoriginalarticlederivedfromthedissertation,forpublicationinanationalorinternationalpeerreviewedjournal(afterapprovalofthecommittee).Themembersofthedissertationcommitteerepresentdifferentcontentareas.Publicuniversitiesrequirefive-membercommittees,threeofwhomareexternaltotheinstitution.Therequirementsfornursingdoctoralprogramsarethesameasforotherdisciplines.

Themonitoringprocessesandproceduresarerigorous,andoperateatseverallevels.TheMinistryofEducation/CoordinationofHigherEducationmustgiveauthorization/approvalbeforeaprogramcanbegin.Allprogramsmustalsoattainaccreditationbeforetheymayawarddegrees.Additionally,everythreeyears,programsareevaluatedthroughapeerreviewprocessinvolvingexternalconsultants,accordingtoestablishedcriteriaandnationalguidelines.Theareasbeingevaluatedpertaintotheplanofstudies,faculty,researchactivities,educationalactivities,studentbody,dissertation,andthesisquality,andscholarlyproductivityoffacultyandstudents.Theresultsofthisevaluationarecirculatedandarepubliclyavailable,providingarankingoftheprogramincomparisonwithothersandrecommendationsforimprovement.Theresultsofthisreviewareusedbyfundingagenciestoallocatefederalresourcesforeducationandresearch(NevesandMauro,2000).

Internally,eachprogramconductsitsownperiodicevaluationaswell,withappropriatechangesimplementedtostayincompliancewithgovernmentalrequirements.Animportantindicatorinthesereviewsisscientificproductivity,involvingtheconductofresearchandresultantpublications;thesescholarlyactivitiesareexpectedtooccurfollowingnationalguidelinesfortheprofession.Linesofinvestigationinitiallyestablishedin1982arecurrentlybeingrevised,toreflectnursingresearchprioritieswhichareunderdevelopment.Theseprioritiestakeintoconsiderationbothnationalaswellasregionalhealthresearchneeds.Nursingisallowedlatitudeindeterminingitsownprioritieswithinthenational/regionalframeworks.Eachschoolcanthendetermineitsownfocusasitdeemsappropriate,inviewofitsfacultyexpertiseandresources.

Somedoctoralprogramsareofferedcollaborativelyamongschools.Insomeoftheseinstances,thecollaborationisbetweenschoolsthathavewellestablished,accreditedprograms,andthosethathavenotreachedtherequiredlevelofmaturity.Theseprojectsfocusonunder-servedgeographicalregionswiththeaimofdecreasingtheinequalityinregionaldevelopment.Inaddition,thereareprojectsthataddresstheneedsfordevelopmentofLatinAmericancountries,inwhichBrazilianschoolswithmaturedoctoralprogramsareengagedinassistingothercountriestodevelopdoctoralprograms.

Venezuela

VenezuelaisthesecondcountryinLatinAmericatooffernursingdoctoraleducation.Thefirstnursingdoctoralprogramwasinitiatedin1998atUniversidaddeCarabobo,FacultaddeCienciasdelaSalud,EscueladeEnfermeriaBValencia,Venezuela.ThisprogramwasmadepossibleasaresultofthefinancialsupportofPanAmericanHealthOrganization,andthetechnicalsupportprovidedbythefacultyoftheFederalUniversityofSantaCatarina,Brazil.ThedoctoralprogramisoneofthemajorprojectsoftheREDEV--RedparaelDesarollodelaEnfermeriaVenezoelana,anetworkforthedevelopmentofVenezuelanNursing,createdatthesametime.UniversityofCarabobooffers26graduateprograms,sixofwhichareatdoctorallevel,inavarietyoffields.

Thefocusofthisnursingdoctoralprogramis:developmentofknowledgethroughresearchandscholarship;personalandprofessionaldevelopmentfortransformingnursingpractice;leadershipintheproduction,applicationanddiffusionofknowledgethatsupportstheartandscienceofnursing,andcaringforhealthandhumanlife.

Criteriaforadmissiontothedoctoralprogramincludeamaster'sdegree,apreliminaryresearchproposalinoneoftheexistinglinesofinvestigation,aletterofacceptancefromamajorprofessoranda"co-tutor"(fromnursingoroneofselectedfields),curriculumvitae,andproficiencyinaforeignlanguage.Applicantsarerequiredtotakeanentryexam.

Theinitialgroupofstudentsisaseasonedgroup,comprisingofmid-careerprofessionals,someofwhomareleaders,andholdteachingorotherimportantpositions.Atotalof56creditsarerequiredforthedegree,distributedbetweencourseworkandthedoctoralthesis(12credits).Threeyearsarerequiredforthecompletionofdegreerequirements,withthepossibilityofanadditionalyear,withappropriatejustification.

Themainfocusoftheprogramishealthandhumancaring.

Themainfocusoftheprogramishealthandhumancaring.Thecurricularcomponentsincludephilosophical,theoreticalandhistoricalfoundationsofhumancaring;fundamentalsofscienceandepistemologyanditsapplicationtonursing;foundationsformanagementofhealthandnursingservices;foundationsofgeneralandhealtheducation;theoreticalandphilosophicalconceptionsofhealth/lifepromotionandmaintenance;researchprocessinnursingandhealth.

Doctoralstudentsandfacultyarerequiredtoengageinresearchendeavorsdevelopedbyresearchgroupsatthenursingschool.Theresearchstudiesshouldencompassoneofthefollowingunitsofinvestigationinnursing;adolescentreproductivehealth;andmanagementofcareandnursingservices.

Doctoralstudentsarerequiredtogivelectures,conductworkshopsandothereducationalactivitiestonursesorotherprofessionalsinordertogeneratefinancialresourcestosupporttheirowninvestigationandstudies.Theyarealsorequiredtotravelabroadinordertobroadentheirnursingviewsandtoestablishexchangewithothernursingcolleagues.

Studentsarerequiredtopresent,defend,andgetapprovalofthedoctoralthesisinapublicexam,accordingtopoliciesestablishedbytheUniversity.Thethesiscommitteeiscomposedofuniversityfacultywhopossessesdoctoraldegreesandexpertiseintheareaofthethesistopic.Thechairofthedissertationcommitteeisanursewithdoctoralpreparation,andafacultymemberofthedoctoralprogram.Atleastonecommitteememberisfromanotheruniversity.

Therequirementsfornursingdoctoralstudyandthethesisarethesameasforotherfieldswithintheuniversity.Thequalityofthedoctoralprogramismonitoredbymechanismsofself-evaluation,andexternalevaluation.TheevaluationisperformedaccordingtoamodelcalledCindathatencompassessixdimensions,asfollows:relevance,effectiveness,andavailabilityofresources,efficiency,efficacy,andprocesses.TheprocessofevaluationalsoincludesdimensionsandindicatorsofnationalaccreditationofgraduateprogramsestablishedbytheNationalCouncilofUniversities.

OtherCountries

SeveralcountriesintheAmericasarenowengagedininitiativestodevelopdoctoralprograms.AmongtheseareArgentina,Chile,Colombia,Mexico,andPeru.Facultiesplanningthesenewdoctoralprogramsareworkingwithvariousinternationalconsultantswithintheregiontodevelopofferingsappropriatefortheneedsoftheirrespectivecountries.

CommonalitiesandDifferences

InarecentpaperbyKetefianandRedman(2001),theauthorsdescribedtwoprevalentpatternsofdoctoraleducation,whichtheycalledtheEuropeanmodelandtheNorthAmericanmodel.IntheEuropeanmodelthereisnocoursework,andtheprogramisconductedthroughindividuallysupervisedresearch.WhileintheNorthAmericanmodel,thereisaperiodofratherextensivecoursework,1-2yearsinlength,duringwhichthestudentobtainssupervisedresearchexperiencebyworkingwithfaculty;thisphaseisfollowedbyanexamination;uponsuccessfulcompletion,thestudentundertakesthedissertation,whichissupervisedbyacommitteeoffacultycomprisedofnursingandotheruniversityfaculty.

AreviewofdoctoraleducationinthefourcountriesintheAmericassuggeststhattheyaredesignedintheNorthAmericanmodel,whichcannowbecalledthe"PanAmericanModel."

Clearly,eachcountrythatbeginsdoctoraleducationhasbeeninfluencedbythedevelopmentsindoctoralstudyintheprecedingcountries;yet,itissignificantthateachcountryhasdevelopeditseducationalprogramsinamannerthatbestfitswithinitsownuniquehistoricalandculturaltraditions,stateofscience,thehealthcareneedsofthepopulation,andhealthmanpowerneeds.Inallcases,thepurposeofdoctoralstudyistoprepareleadersinnursingandhealthcare,withanemphasisonknowledgedevelopment.Thereisaclearcomponentofcoursework,supervisedresearch,andthedissertation/thesisrequirement.Allcountrieshavestatedthattheyfollowtheoverallrequirementsofdoctoraleducationwithinthehomeuniversitysetting,andaresubjecttothemonitoringandcontrolmechanismsinplaceintheiruniversitiesandcountries.Clearly,eachcountrythatbeginsdoctoraleducationhasbeeninfluencedbythedevelopmentsindoctoralstudyintheprecedingcountries;yet,itissignificantthateachcountryhasdevelopeditseducationalprogramsinamannerthatbestfitswithinitsownuniquehistoricalandculturaltraditions,stateofscience,thehealthcareneedsofthepopulation,andhealthmanpowerneeds.

Collaborativepartnershipsareevidentacrossinstitutionstoaddressinequalityofmanpowerdistribution,ortobetteruseresourcesandshareexpertise;collaborationcanbeseenacrosscountriesaswell,totakeadvantageofmoreexperiencedteamsofexpertsduringinitialstagesofprogramdevelopment.

Therearelikelytobedifferencesaswell;however,thelevelofdetailatwhichthisreportwascompiledwasnotcapableofdetectingspecificwaysinwhichdifferencescouldbeexhibited.Thereappearstobeapreponderantusemadeofdoctoralgraduatesinacademicandteachingroles,reflectingthecurrentneedsofthecountries.Towhatextentdodifferentcountriesmakeuseofindividualspreparedwiththedoctorateinpolicyroleswithinhealthcareorindustryisnotknown.

ThepatternwithinCanadianinstitutionsappearstobeacombinationoftheEuropeanmodelandtheAmericanmodel.TheextentofrequiredcourseworkappearslessextensivethanwithintheU.S.A.andpursuitofindividualresearchwithasupervisorappearstobeginatapplicationorsoonthereafter.

Recommendations

Indiscussinginternationalperspectivesondoctoralprogramqualityindicators,NevesArrudaanddeSilva(1999)presentthreedimensionsforevaluatingqualityfromtheSouthAmericanperspective;thesearethesocio-political,technical,andsubjective.Thesocio-politicaldimensionencompassestheproductionandtransmissionofknowledge;italsoincorporatesthedevelopmentofanationalidentity,values,attitudesandbehaviorsthatmakelifepossibleinademocraticandparticipativesociety.Itinvolvesthedevelopmentofthecapacitytobeproductiveinacriticalandcreativemanner,communicateeffectively,andworkinteams.

Thetechnicaldimensionaddressestheprogramofstudiesandeducationalexperiencesandenvironmentsthatenablethedevelopmentofexpertiseaswellasopendiscussionandrespectforintellectualandideologicaldiversity.

Thesubjectivedimensionaddressestheaffectivedomainsuchassatisfactionwiththeeducationalexperienceandwiththelevelofcompetenceattainedtofunctioneffectivelywithinthesocialandprofessionalenvironments.

Collectively,thesedimensionscallforththeneedtodevelopcompetenciesthatmeetinternaldisciplinarydemands,aswellastheneedsofthelearner,bothintellectualandsubjective;theyalsoaddresstheneedtomeetexternalsocietalneedsbothinproducingexpertsaswellasactivecitizen/scientistswhoshapehealthandsocialpolicythroughtheuseoftheirexpertise.

Theextenttowhichtheaboveelementshavevalidityforothercountries,itwouldbeimportanttodeterminewhetherthedoctoralprogramsintheAmericassystematicallyincorporatetheseelements.Thecurrentdatadidnotyieldsufficientinformationtomakethisdetermination.

Thetrendwithinthepastdecadetofocusdoctoralcurriculumsonthestudyandcreationofdisciplinarynursingknowledgehasclearlytakenhold,andappearstobethedirectionforthecountriesreviewed.Forcountriesintheprocessofdevelopingdoctoralprogramsthisshouldbeanimportantconsideration.Itisalsoimportantforeachcountrytoidentifyitsuniqueneeds,educationalandsocialtraditions,anddesigndoctoralprogramsthatwillberesponsivetothoseneeds.Thus,atwo-prongedapproachisrecommended,wherebynewdoctoralprogramsattempttolearnfromlessonsofotherswhohavetraveledthisroadbefore,whileatthesametime,heedingtheimperativesoftheirownsituationsandsocieties.

ThereisaclearneedtodevelopthesocialconsciousnessofstudentsregardingtheirbroadersocietalresponsibilitieswithinAmericas.AnecdotalevidencewouldsuggestthatcurrentlytheindividualswhohavedevelopedthecapacitiesthatNevesArrudaanddeSilva(1999)talkaboutaresmallinnumber.Thepresenceoffacultyrolemodelswithindoctoralprogramsinthisregardisnotknown.

Newdoctoralprogramsshouldclearlybearinmindthehealthcareneedsinthecountries/regionsinwhichtheyarelocatedsoastoberesponsivetosociety.Thetypeofeducationalandresearchexperiencesdesignedforstudentsneedtoincorporatetheimperativesofsocietyaswellasthatofthedisciplineofnursing,sothatnursescholarscanbeseenasrelevant,ratherthanstandingapartfromthesocietieswithinwhichtheyfunction.

Atthepresenttimethereisnoclearevidenceofthepresenceofinternationalperspectiveswithintheprogramsinthecountriesexamined.

AfeaturenotedinBrazilisinstructive.BrazilisreportedtohaveongoingprojectstoaddressthedevelopmentneedswithinLatinAmerica,partofwhichistoprovideassistancetoothercountriesindevelopingtheirdoctoralprograms.ThismodelcanhavemajorimpactinregionaldevelopmentifadoptedbythecountriesinNorthAmerica,especiallyCanadaandtheUnitedStates.Knowledgeabouthealthcareneedsandnursinginothercountriestendstobeacquiredrandomlyorthroughindividualefforts,ratherthansystematicallydevelopedaspartofaprogramofstudy.Manynursingprogramsarenowprovidingoptionalinternationalexperiencestodoctoralstudents.Also,anincreasingnumberoffacultiesareworkinginothercountriestocollaborateinresearchandotherareas.However,theseareinthemainindividualinitiatives.ThoseinstitutionswithWorldHealthOrganizationCollaboratingCentersareprovidingbroaderinstitutionallevelleadershipthatpromisestohavemorelastingimpact.However,thenumberoftheseinstitutionsisquitesmall.AfeaturenotedinBrazilisinstructive.BrazilisreportedtohaveongoingprojectstoaddressthedevelopmentneedswithinLatinAmerica,partofwhichistoprovideassistancetoothercountriesindevelopingtheirdoctoralprograms.ThismodelcanhavemajorimpactinregionaldevelopmentifadoptedbythecountriesinNorthAmerica,especiallyCanadaandtheUnitedStates.

TheregionoftheAmericashasover40countries,spanningfromtheveryrichtotheverypoornations.Manycountrieshavedirehealthandmanpowerneeds.Atpresentonlyfourcountriesofferdoctoraleducationinnursing.Asystematicplancanbeputinplacetobetterusetheexpertiseavailablewithintheregiontoassistothercountrieswherethistypeofnursingdevelopmentisindicated.Regionalorganizations,foundations,selectedinstitutions,andnon-governmentalagencies/organizationsallcanplayanimportantroleinachievingthisgoalinanorganizedmanner.Inthisvein,itisworthnotingthatanewgroup,TheInternationalNetworkforDoctoralEducationinNursing,hasbeenformed,andtheexpertiseofitsmembers,drawnfrom25countries,isextensive;thisgroupisinapositiontoprovideleadershiptoassistinthistypeoforganizedeffort;thisinternationalnetworkiscurrentlydevelopinginternationalstandardsandqualityindicatorsfordoctoraleducationforconsideration.

Manycountriesoftheworld,especiallywithinAsiaandAfrica,aresystematicallybuildingvariouscollaborativemodelsintheirdoctoralprograms.Someofthesemodelsareinnovativeandarebeingtestednow.Othersareusingdistancelearningstrategiesandtechnologiesincombinations.Thereisaneedtosystematicallyevaluatethesestrategiesastheyemergesolessonscanbelearnedforthebenefitofall.

Authors

ShakéKetefian,EdD,RN,FAAN
E-mail:ketefian@umich.edu

ShakéKetefian,EdD,RN,FAAN,Professor;DirectorofDoctoral/PostdoctoralStudiesandInternationalAffairs,UniversityofMichigan,SchoolofNursing,400NorthIngalls,AnnArbor,MI48109,USA;Dr.KetefianisalsotheChairpersonoftheInternationalNetworkforDoctoralEducationinNursing[URL:www.umich.edu/~inden/]

Tel.:734/764-9454;FAX:734/763-6668.

EloitaPereiraNeves,DNSc,RN
E-mail:eloitan@bol.com.br

EloitaPereiraNeves,DNSc,RN,isaformerprofessorofnursingattheNursingDoctoralProgram-FederalUniversityofSantaCatarina,FlorianopolisSCandVisitingProfessor,StateUniversityofRiodeJaneiro,Rua28deSetembro174RiodeJaneiro,RJBrazil

MariaGabyGutiérrez,PhD,RN
E-mail:mggutierrez@denf.epm.br

MariaGabyGutiérrez,PhD,RN,isarepresentativeofnursingatCAPES,MinistryofEducation-CoordinationofHigherEducationandaProfessor,attheFederalUniversityofSaoPaulo,Brazil

References

Grace,H.(1978).Thedevelopmentofdoctoraleducationinnursing:Anhistoricalperspective.JournalofNursingEducation,17(4),17-27.

Ketefian,S.,&Redman,R.W.(2001).Globalperspectivesongraduatenursingeducation:Opportunitiesandchallenges.InChaska,N.(Ed.),TheNursingProfession:TomorrowandBeyond.ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications(Pp.219-231).

Murphy,J.F.(1981).Doctoraleducationin,of,andfornursing:Anhistoricalanalysis.NursingOutlook,29(11),645-649.

NevesArruda,E.&deSilva,A.L.(1999).Settingthestage:Internationalperspectivesonqualityindicatorsindoctoralprogramsinnursing.PaperpresentedattheInternationalNetworkforDoctoralEducationinNursingconference,June1999,London,England.[PaperavailableonURL:www.umich.edu/~inden/].

Neves,E.P.&Mauro,M.Y.C.(2000).NursinginBrazil:Trajectory,ConquestsandChallenges.OnlineJournalofIssuesinNursing[PaperavailableonURL:www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No1Jan01/ArticlePreviousTopic/NursinginBrazil.aspx]

Redman,R.W.&Ketefian,S.(1997).Thechangingfaceofgraduateeducation.InMcCloskey,J.C.&Grace,H.K.(Eds.).Currentissuesinnursing.St.Louis:Mosby-YearBook,Inc.(160-168).FifthEdition.

©2001OnlineJournalofIssuesinNursing
ArticlepublishedMay31,2001

References

Grace, H. (1978). The development of doctoral education in nursing: An historical perspective. Journal of Nursing Education, 17(4), 17-27.

Ketefian, S., & Redman, R.W. (2001). Global perspectives on graduate nursing education: Opportunities and challenges. In Chaska, N. (Ed.), The Nursing Profession: Tomorrow and Beyond. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications (Pp. 219-231).

Murphy, J.F. (1981). Doctoral education in, of, and for nursing: An historical analysis. Nursing Outlook, 29(11), 645-649.

Neves Arruda, E. & de Silva, A.L. (1999). Setting the stage: International perspectives on quality indicators in doctoral programs in nursing. Paper presented at the International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing conference, June 1999, London, England. [Paper available on URL: www.umich.edu/~inden/].

Neves, E.P. & Mauro, M.Y.C. (2000). Nursing in Brazil: Trajectory, Conquests and Challenges. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing [Paper available on URL: www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No1Jan01/ArticlePreviousTopic/NursinginBrazil.aspx]

Redman, R.W. & Ketefian, S. (1997). The changing face of graduate education. In McCloskey, J.C. & Grace, H. K. (Eds.). Current issues in nursing. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, Inc. (160-168). Fifth Edition.

May 31, 2001

DOI: 10.3912/OJIN.Vol6No02PPT02

https://doi.org/10.3912/OJIN.Vol6No02PPT02

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Citation: Ketefian S., Neves E., Gutiérrez M. (May 31, 2001) "Nursing Doctoral Education in the Americas" Online Journal of Issues in Nursing. Vol. 6  No. 2.

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