Nursing Doctoral Education in the Americas

  • Shaké Ketefian, EdD, RN, FAAN
    Shaké Ketefian, EdD, RN, FAAN

    Shaké Ketefian, EdD, RN, FAAN, Professor; Director of Doctoral/Postdoctoral Studies and International Affairs, University of Michigan, School of Nursing, 400 North Ingalls, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Dr. Ketefian is also the Chairperson of the International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing [URL: www.umich.edu/~inden/]

    Tel.: 734/764-9454; FAX: 734/763-6668.

  • Eloita Pereira Neves, DNSc, RN
    Eloita Pereira Neves, DNSc, RN

    Eloita Pereira Neves, DNSc, RN, is a former professor of nursing at the Nursing Doctoral Program - Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis SC and Visiting Professor, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rua 28 de Setembro 174 Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil

  • Maria Gaby Gutiérrez, PhD, RN
    Maria Gaby Gutiérrez, PhD, RN

    Maria Gaby Gutiérrez, PhD, RN, is a representative of nursing at CAPES, Ministry of Education - Coordination of Higher Education and a Professor, at the Federal University of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Abstract

This paper deals with nursing doctoral education in the Americas. It provides an overview of existing doctoral programs in four countries where such research training is provided, namely, Canada and the United States in North America, Brazil and Venezuela in South America. For each country, patterns of education are described, including curriculum elements, students, research training, the dissertation, quality monitoring issues, and trends that may be emerging. Commonalities and differences are then identified, and recommendations are presented for those countries developing doctoral education; the potential for collaboration is highlighted between countries with extensive experience in doctoral education and those that are at the beginning stages of development.

Key words: Nursing doctoral education in the Americas; International doctoral education; Patterns of doctoral education

ThefollowingtwoarticlesinthisSpecialSectionfortheTopic"NursingDoctoralAroundtheWorld"initiatedialogueregardingDoctoralEducationWorldwide.

ShakéKetefian,EdD,RN,FAAN
EloitaPereiraNeves,DNSc,RN
MariaGabyGutiérrez,PhD,RN

Abstract

ThispaperdealswithnursingdoctoraleducationintheAmericas.Itprovidesanoverviewofexistingdoctoralprogramsinfourcountrieswheresuchresearchtrainingisprovided,namely,CanadaandtheUnitedStatesinNorthAmerica,BrazilandVenezuelainSouthAmerica.Foreachcountry,patternsofeducationaredescribed,includingcurriculumelements,students,researchtraining,thedissertation,qualitymonitoringissues,andtrendsthatmaybeemerging.Commonalitiesanddifferencesarethenidentified,andrecommendationsarepresentedforthosecountriesdevelopingdoctoraleducation;thepotentialforcollaborationishighlightedbetweencountrieswithextensiveexperienceindoctoraleducationandthosethatareatthebeginningstagesofdevelopment.

Citation:KetefianS.,NevesE.,GutiérrezM.(May31,2001)"NursingDoctoralEducationintheAmericas"OnlineJournalofIssuesinNursing.Vol.6 No.2.Availablewww.nursingworld.org//MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No2May01/ArticlePreviousTopic/DoctoralEducationAmericas.aspx

Keywords:NursingdoctoraleducationintheAmericas;Internationaldoctoraleducation;Patternsofdoctoraleducation

NursingDoctoralEducationintheAmericas

InreviewingthepictureofnursingdoctoraleducationintheregionoftheAmericas,onefindsapictureofextremes.Ontheonehand,theUnitedStateshasoffereddoctoralstudyinnursingsincethe1930s(Redman&Ketefian,1997),andnowhasoneofthemostadvancedandextensivesystemsintheworld.Ontheother,anumberofcountrieswithinSouthAmericaarenowmakingplanstoofferdoctoralstudyandareintheexploratorystages.Inthispaperwewillprovideanoverviewofpatternsofeducationforexistingdoctoralprogramsinfourcountries,willreviewtrendsnowshapingforthenextdecade,andmakerecommendationsforcountriesnowconsideringtheestablishmentofdoctoralprograms.

OverviewofDoctoralEducationinNursing

Inprovidinganoverviewofexistingdoctoralprograms,fourcountrieswillbeconsidered,asfollows:withinNorthAmerica,CanadaandtheUnitedStates;withinSouthAmerica,BrazilandVenezuela.Theywillbereviewedinthehistoricalorderinwhichdoctoraleducationwasinitiated.

UnitedStatesofAmerica

DoctoraleducationwasfirstinitiatedatTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity(1933),andatNewYorkUniversity(1934)withthedoctorofeducation(EdD)degree.Inthenext25yearsonlytwomoredoctoralprogramswereestablished.Sincethen,thegrowthofdoctoralprogramshasoccurredrapidly(Redman&Ketefian,1997).Atlastcount,over85institutionswereofferingdoctoraleducationfornurses.Approximately80percentofthedegreesarethePhD[researchdegree],withtheremainingbeingeitherDNS/DNScorEdD[professionaldegrees].Theresearchdoctorate,PhD,haswideacceptanceinhighereducation,andisawardedforthehighestattainmentofscholarshipinmostdisciplines.

Grace(1978)andMurphy(1981)havecharacterizedtheevolutionofdoctoralprogramsinphases.PhaseIincludededucationfornursesforfunctionalrolessuchaseducationoradministration(inceptionto1959);PhaseIIinvolvededucationfornursesinaseconddiscipline,referredtoasnursescientisttraining(1960-1969),althoughthisphasecontinuedwellintothe1970ssoenrolledstudentscouldcompletetheirstudies;PhaseIIIinvolvededucationinandofnursing(1970topresent).

Doctoraleducationbuildsonundergraduateandmaster'sstudy.

Itisgenerallyacceptedthatthepurposeofdoctoraleducationistopreparescientistswhoarequalifiedtocontributetothedevelopmentofnursingknowledgeandwhoareleadersinhealthcare,educationandotherenterprises.Thecurricularcomponentshaveevolvedovertheyears,andinmostcases,isnowfocusedonadvancedscientifictraininginthedisciplineofnursing.Itisgenerallyacceptedthatthepurposeofdoctoraleducationistopreparescientistswhoarequalifiedtocontributetothedevelopmentofnursingknowledgeandwhoareleadersinhealthcare,educationandotherenterprises.

Whilethereareprogramvariations,thecurricularcomponentsingeneralaresimilar;theseincluderesearchandtheoryinsubstantivenursingsubjects,researchmethodsanddesigns,theorybuildingandphilosophyofscience,cognatestudiesinrelatedfields,supervisedresearchpracticums,oneormoreresearchprojects,andadissertation.Graduatesofdoctoralprogramsteach,conductresearch,lead,ordirecthealth-relatedenterprises,andfunctioninsettingssuchasuniversities,policyarenas,privatebusinesses,andthelike.

Eachuniversitypositsitsownadmissioncriteria.Inthemain,applicantsarereviewedonthebasisofthefollowingcriteria:GraduateRecordExaminationscores,gradepointaverageattainedinundergraduateandmaster'sstudy,referenceletters,statementofgoals,andqualityofscholarlypaperstheysubmit.Someschoolsrequirepriornursingandprofessionalexperience,somedonot.Typically,entrantstodoctoralstudytendtobeintheirmid-tolatethirtiesandbythetimetheygraduatetheyareintheirearlyforties.Strategiesarenowbeingconsideredtoattractentrantstodoctoralstudyearlierintheircareers.

Theextentanddepthofresearchtrainingvariessomewhat,dependingontypeofinstitution.Programsthatresideinresearch-intensiveuniversitiesprovidethemostdemandingandextensiveresearchtraining.Thesubstantivenursingfocusofferedbyprogramsistypicallyafunctionofthefacultyandtheirownareasofresearch.Inresearchintensiveinstitutions,itisarequirementthatacriticalmassoffacultybeengagedinacommonareaofinvestigation,havetrackrecordsofscholarlyproductivity,andhavefundedprogramsofresearchbeforeacurricularfocuscanbeofferedtostudents.Suchfacultyengagementisthoughttoenhanceandenrichthelearningexperiencesofstudents.

ItistypicalwithintheUnitedStatesforstudentstogothroughaperiodofcoursework.Uponthecompletionofcourserequirements,studentsundergoanexaminationtodemonstratemasteryofthesubjectmatteroftheirinterest;uponsuccessfulcompletion,theyareadmittedtocandidacy,andcanproceedtothedissertationphase.Manyinstitutionshaveresearchexperienceorinternshiprequirementsforstudentstospendaperiodoftimelearningresearchhands-onastheyworkwithafacultymemberonongoingresearch,andcontinuethisinvolvementthroughouttheirprogramofstudy.Asaresultofthisapproachstudentstendtoaccumulateascholarlytrackrecordwhileindoctoralstudy,gainingvaluableexperienceinco-authoringpapersandscientificpresentationswiththeirmentors,preparingresearchproposals,posters,andthelike,whichservesthemingoodsteadupongraduation.

Dissertationtopicsselectedshouldbeinlinewiththecurricularfocusandfacultyexpertise,

Dissertationtopicsselectedshouldbeinlinewiththecurricularfocusandfacultyexpertise,besignificanttosociety,andpromisetomakeacontributiontonursingscience.besignificanttosociety,andpromisetomakeacontributiontonursingscienceaswellasdemonstratethatthestudenthasacquiredthenecessaryskillstobeabletofunctionasanindependentscholarupongraduation.Afacultycommitteethatincludesnursingaswellasnon-nursingfacultyfromotherdepartmentssupervisesanddeterminesthequalityofdissertations.Itsscholarlycharacter,theoreticalsoundness,scope,significance,andmethodologicalsophisticationareconsiderationsindeterminingquality.Anoraldefense,whichmayormaynotbepublic,culminatestheprocess.Publicationsbasedonthedissertationareencouraged.Doctoraleducationismonitoredbytheuniversities,althoughdaytodayresponsibilityfallstothenursingfaculty.Theuniversityinvolvementassuresthatnursingstudentsmeetallrequirementsoftheinstitution,similartostudentsinotherfields.

Manydoctoralstudentsstudyonapart-timebasis,althoughtheratioofpart-timetofull-timestudentsvariesgreatlywithindoctoralprograms.Thenationalaveragefortimetodegree,frombeginningtocompletion,isfiveyears.

Atrendatpresentisforseveralinstitutionstocollaborate.Typically,theimpetusforthishascomefromgovernmentalbodiesforwhombudgetaryconsiderationsweighheavily,andcollaborativelyofferingdoctoralprogramsaredeemedmoreefficient.AnotherinterestingtrendisforcoursestobeofferedontheWorldWideWeb,(on-line)orusingotherdistancelearningtechnologies.Useofsuchtechnologieshasrenderedthegeographiclocationofthestudentirrelevant,andmanypotentialstudentsareattractedtoprogramsthatoffereithercoursesorentireprogramsthroughdistanceeducation.Ontheotherhand,someinstitutionshaveresisteduseofthesemodes,maintainingthatone-on-onerelationshipwiththefacultymentorisanindispensablepartofdoctoraleducationandwouldbecompromisedifthestudentwerenotoncampus.

Canada

ThefirstdoctoralprograminCanadawasofferedattheUniversityofAlbertain1991.

Animportantpartoftheapplicationinsomeschoolsisthepresentationofadetailedcareerplan,anddelineationofspecificresearchintereststobepursued,whichshouldbecongruentwiththefocusoftheparticularprogram.Thecountrynowhassixinstitutions[researchuniversities]offeringdoctoralprogramsinnursing.Thepurposeofdoctoralstudyistoprepareindividualswhoarecapableofdevelopingandtestingknowledge,andpursuingscholarship.Applicantsmustpossessamaster'sdegreeinnursingduringwhichtheyhaveconductedaresearch-basedthesis,andhaveasoundnursingbackground;theymusthaveastrongacademicbackgroundasindicatedbygradepointaveragesattained,havedemonstrablepotentialandastrongcommitmenttonursingresearch,verifiedthroughreferenceletters.Animportantpartoftheapplicationinsomeschoolsisthepresentationofadetailedcareerplan,anddelineationofspecificresearchintereststobepursued,whichshouldbecongruentwiththefocusoftheparticularprogram.Determinationofafacultysupervisorismadepriortoadmission.

Theamountandtypeofcourseworkvaryacrosstheseschools,andevenwithinschools,dependingonstudentbackground,experience,andcareergoals.Studentsarerequiredtotakecoursesinresearchmethodsanddesigns,theorydevelopment,andthephilosophicalbasisofnursingscience.Thesupervisorycommitteemayrecommendothernursingornon-nursingcourses.Acomprehensiveexaminationistakenwithinaspecifiedperiodfromentryintotheprogramoratcompletionofcoursework.Thisexamistypicallymadeofseveralmajorpapers.Theexaminingcommitteemaybeacombinationofnursingandotheruniversityfaculty.

Adissertationisrequired.Thepurposeistocontributetothescienceofnursingand/ordemonstrateabilitytodevelopnewmethodologyoradvanceexistingmethodsbyapplyingthemwithinanewareaofhealthcareornursingresearch.Anoraldefenseofthethesis/dissertationisrequired.Thefacultysupervisoristheprimaryresourceforthestudent.Alongwithafacultycommittee,thestudentisguidedthroughouttheprogramofstudyinselectingappropriatecoursesandotherlearningexperiences;thecommitteemustapprovethedissertationproposal,andassuresthatthestudenthasacquiredtheneededskillstocarryouttheresearch,anddeterminestheexistenceofresourcesneededtocarryoutthestudy.Thecommitteemonitorsthequalityoftheresearch,anditsapprovalofthethesisdesignatessatisfactorycompletion.Thesupervisingcommitteeiscomprisedofmembersfromnursingandotherdisciplines.Membersoutsideoftheuniversitymaybenominatedifindicated.

Thedoctoralprogramsareofferedwithintheoveralluniversityrequirementsinthatstudentsmustmeetthesamerequirementsasstudentsinotherdisciplines.Theuniversitiesprovideoverallqualitymonitoringmechanismsundertheumbrellaofagraduateschool.AlldoctoralprogramsinCanadaarelocatedwithinresearchuniversitieswheredoctoratesinmanyotherfieldsarealsooffered.

SomeuniversitiesinCanadaareexperimentingwithflexibleoptionsandintroducingnon-traditionallearningmodalitiesthatenablestudentstocompletedegreerequirementsthroughcombinationsofon-campusandoff-campuslearningexperiences.

Brazil

Brazilbeganofferingdoctoraleducationinnursingin1981throughaninter-institutionaldoctoralprogram,whichwasajointventurebetweentwouniversities.Subsequently,additionalprogramswereestablished.Atpresent,ninenursingdoctoralprogramsareofferedinthecountry,byfiveuniversities,withsomeinstitutionsofferingmorethanoneprogram.Theyareintendedtoprepareindividualsforleadershippositionsinresearchandteaching,althoughotherareasofendeavorinhealthcareorgovernmentalagenciescanalsobechosen.

TheBraziliangovernmentalguidelinesfordoctoralprogramsdonotrequiremaster'sdegreeforadmission;however,allnursingdoctoralprogramshavechosentorequirethemaster'sforadmission.Eachdoctoralprogramestablishesitsowncriteriaforadmission.Thecriteriaformostprogramsinclude:apreliminaryresearchproposalthatisrelevantfordevelopingnursingknowledge;curriculumvitaethatdescribesrelevanceofapplicant'sprofessionalexperience,educationalbackground,researchactivities(publications),andproficiencyinEnglish(reading/comprehensionabilities).Thereisatendencytoadmityoungerstudents(earlythirties)whohaveexperienceintheteachingorpracticearena,andwhodemonstratepotentialforleadershipinresearch.

Thetypicaldoctoralprograminvolvesapproximatelytwoyearsofcourseworkandanequalamountoftimefordissertationwork.Oneassignedmajorprofessorisresponsibleforsupervisingstudentresearch,andforassuringthecompletionofstudiesintherequiredtimeframe.

ThecurricularcomponentsaresimilartotheU.S.A.,emphasizingepistemology,philosophyofscience,researchmethods,cognatestudiesinfieldsrelatedtothetopicofthedissertation,andsupervisedresearchpracticum.Itisexpectedthatthelevelofconceptualizationismoreadvancedthanatthemaster'sprogram;further,doctoralprogramsareexpectedtocontributetosciencedevelopmentinsubstantivenursingknowledge,andtotheimprovementinqualityofnursingpractice(oreducationandhealthcareservices).

Allprogramsrequireaqualifyingexambeforethecandidatecanimplementtheresearchproposalforthedissertation.Theproposalmustbedefendedbeforeacommitteeofthreetofivefacultymembers.

Doctoraldissertationresearchtopicsarederivedfromtheresearchlinesofinvestigationestablishedbytheresearchgroupscoordinatedbyfacultywhoarethemajorprofessorsofdoctoralstudents.Thoselinesofinvestigationencompassthemesrelatedtothefollowingareas:assistance,professional,andorganizationofnursingandhealthcareservices.

Thedoctoralprogramsdonotrequirepreviousresearchexperienceonthepartofthestudentbeforehe/shecanstartthedissertation.

Themembersoftheresearchgroupjointlydevelopaprogramofresearch.Facultymemberswithdoctoraldegreescoordinateoneoftheprojects,andareresponsiblefortheoverallproject.Thetrendisthatstudents,uponadmissiontotheprogram,becomeinvolvedinaresearchprojectandjoinoneoftheresearchgroups.Theresearchgroupsmayhaveoneormorefacultymemberswhoholddoctoraldegrees,facultywithmaster'sdegrees,nursesfromhealthcareagencieswhoholdmaster'sdegreesorspecializationinthetopicsofstudy,master's,doctoral,andundergraduatestudentsthatreceivescholarshipsorworkonavoluntarybasis.Themembersoftheresearchgroupjointlydevelopaprogramofresearch.Facultymemberswithdoctoraldegreescoordinateoneoftheprojects,andareresponsiblefortheoverallproject.Doctoralstudentsengageinresearchactivitieswithintheprojectsthatareguidedbytheirmajorprofessor.Throughthistypeofhands-onparticipationstudentshavetheopportunitytolearntoconductresearch,aswellasbepartofthedecisionsthatneedtobemadeonaregularbasistoresolveissues,aswellasdevelopleadershipskills.

Therequirementsforthedissertationarethatthestudenthascompletedcoursework,andthatthedissertation(calleddoctoralthesis)followsthetheoreticalandmethodologicalrigorexpected.Thegoalofthedissertationistocontributetothescientificbodyofknowledgeinnursing,andtoofferthestudentanopportunitytolearnhowtoconductscientificresearch.

Uponcompletionofthedissertationthecandidatedefendsitinapublicexam.Thestudentalsomustsubmitanoriginalarticlederivedfromthedissertation,forpublicationinanationalorinternationalpeerreviewedjournal(afterapprovalofthecommittee).Themembersofthedissertationcommitteerepresentdifferentcontentareas.Publicuniversitiesrequirefive-membercommittees,threeofwhomareexternaltotheinstitution.Therequirementsfornursingdoctoralprogramsarethesameasforotherdisciplines.

Themonitoringprocessesandproceduresarerigorous,andoperateatseverallevels.TheMinistryofEducation/CoordinationofHigherEducationmustgiveauthorization/approvalbeforeaprogramcanbegin.Allprogramsmustalsoattainaccreditationbeforetheymayawarddegrees.Additionally,everythreeyears,programsareevaluatedthroughapeerreviewprocessinvolvingexternalconsultants,accordingtoestablishedcriteriaandnationalguidelines.Theareasbeingevaluatedpertaintotheplanofstudies,faculty,researchactivities,educationalactivities,studentbody,dissertation,andthesisquality,andscholarlyproductivityoffacultyandstudents.Theresultsofthisevaluationarecirculatedandarepubliclyavailable,providingarankingoftheprogramincomparisonwithothersandrecommendationsforimprovement.Theresultsofthisreviewareusedbyfundingagenciestoallocatefederalresourcesforeducationandresearch(NevesandMauro,2000).

Internally,eachprogramconductsitsownperiodicevaluationaswell,withappropriatechangesimplementedtostayincompliancewithgovernmentalrequirements.Animportantindicatorinthesereviewsisscientificproductivity,involvingtheconductofresearchandresultantpublications;thesescholarlyactivitiesareexpectedtooccurfollowingnationalguidelinesfortheprofession.Linesofinvestigationinitiallyestablishedin1982arecurrentlybeingrevised,toreflectnursingresearchprioritieswhichareunderdevelopment.Theseprioritiestakeintoconsiderationbothnationalaswellasregionalhealthresearchneeds.Nursingisallowedlatitudeindeterminingitsownprioritieswithinthenational/regionalframeworks.Eachschoolcanthendetermineitsownfocusasitdeemsappropriate,inviewofitsfacultyexpertiseandresources.

Somedoctoralprogramsareofferedcollaborativelyamongschools.Insomeoftheseinstances,thecollaborationisbetweenschoolsthathavewellestablished,accreditedprograms,andthosethathavenotreachedtherequiredlevelofmaturity.Theseprojectsfocusonunder-servedgeographicalregionswiththeaimofdecreasingtheinequalityinregionaldevelopment.Inaddition,thereareprojectsthataddresstheneedsfordevelopmentofLatinAmericancountries,inwhichBrazilianschoolswithmaturedoctoralprogramsareengagedinassistingothercountriestodevelopdoctoralprograms.

Venezuela

VenezuelaisthesecondcountryinLatinAmericatooffernursingdoctoraleducation.Thefirstnursingdoctoralprogramwasinitiatedin1998atUniversidaddeCarabobo,FacultaddeCienciasdelaSalud,EscueladeEnfermeriaBValencia,Venezuela.ThisprogramwasmadepossibleasaresultofthefinancialsupportofPanAmericanHealthOrganization,andthetechnicalsupportprovidedbythefacultyoftheFederalUniversityofSantaCatarina,Brazil.ThedoctoralprogramisoneofthemajorprojectsoftheREDEV--RedparaelDesarollodelaEnfermeriaVenezoelana,anetworkforthedevelopmentofVenezuelanNursing,createdatthesametime.UniversityofCarabobooffers26graduateprograms,sixofwhichareatdoctorallevel,inavarietyoffields.

Thefocusofthisnursingdoctoralprogramis:developmentofknowledgethroughresearchandscholarship;personalandprofessionaldevelopmentfortransformingnursingpractice;leadershipintheproduction,applicationanddiffusionofknowledgethatsupportstheartandscienceofnursing,andcaringforhealthandhumanlife.

Criteriaforadmissiontothedoctoralprogramincludeamaster'sdegree,apreliminaryresearchproposalinoneoftheexistinglinesofinvestigation,aletterofacceptancefromamajorprofessoranda"co-tutor"(fromnursingoroneofselectedfields),curriculumvitae,andproficiencyinaforeignlanguage.Applicantsarerequiredtotakeanentryexam.

Theinitialgroupofstudentsisaseasonedgroup,comprisingofmid-careerprofessionals,someofwhomareleaders,andholdteachingorotherimportantpositions.Atotalof56creditsarerequiredforthedegree,distributedbetweencourseworkandthedoctoralthesis(12credits).Threeyearsarerequiredforthecompletionofdegreerequirements,withthepossibilityofanadditionalyear,withappropriatejustification.

Themainfocusoftheprogramishealthandhumancaring.

Themainfocusoftheprogramishealthandhumancaring.Thecurricularcomponentsincludephilosophical,theoreticalandhistoricalfoundationsofhumancaring;fundamentalsofscienceandepistemologyanditsapplicationtonursing;foundationsformanagementofhealthandnursingservices;foundationsofgeneralandhealtheducation;theoreticalandphilosophicalconceptionsofhealth/lifepromotionandmaintenance;researchprocessinnursingandhealth.

Doctoralstudentsandfacultyarerequiredtoengageinresearchendeavorsdevelopedbyresearchgroupsatthenursingschool.Theresearchstudiesshouldencompassoneofthefollowingunitsofinvestigationinnursing;adolescentreproductivehealth;andmanagementofcareandnursingservices.

Doctoralstudentsarerequiredtogivelectures,conductworkshopsandothereducationalactivitiestonursesorotherprofessionalsinordertogeneratefinancialresourcestosupporttheirowninvestigationandstudies.Theyarealsorequiredtotravelabroadinordertobroadentheirnursingviewsandtoestablishexchangewithothernursingcolleagues.

Studentsarerequiredtopresent,defend,andgetapprovalofthedoctoralthesisinapublicexam,accordingtopoliciesestablishedbytheUniversity.Thethesiscommitteeiscomposedofuniversityfacultywhopossessesdoctoraldegreesandexpertiseintheareaofthethesistopic.Thechairofthedissertationcommitteeisanursewithdoctoralpreparation,andafacultymemberofthedoctoralprogram.Atleastonecommitteememberisfromanotheruniversity.

Therequirementsfornursingdoctoralstudyandthethesisarethesameasforotherfieldswithintheuniversity.Thequalityofthedoctoralprogramismonitoredbymechanismsofself-evaluation,andexternalevaluation.TheevaluationisperformedaccordingtoamodelcalledCindathatencompassessixdimensions,asfollows:relevance,effectiveness,andavailabilityofresources,efficiency,efficacy,andprocesses.TheprocessofevaluationalsoincludesdimensionsandindicatorsofnationalaccreditationofgraduateprogramsestablishedbytheNationalCouncilofUniversities.

OtherCountries

SeveralcountriesintheAmericasarenowengagedininitiativestodevelopdoctoralprograms.AmongtheseareArgentina,Chile,Colombia,Mexico,andPeru.Facultiesplanningthesenewdoctoralprogramsareworkingwithvariousinternationalconsultantswithintheregiontodevelopofferingsappropriatefortheneedsoftheirrespectivecountries.

CommonalitiesandDifferences

InarecentpaperbyKetefianandRedman(2001),theauthorsdescribedtwoprevalentpatternsofdoctoraleducation,whichtheycalledtheEuropeanmodelandtheNorthAmericanmodel.IntheEuropeanmodelthereisnocoursework,andtheprogramisconductedthroughindividuallysupervisedresearch.WhileintheNorthAmericanmodel,thereisaperiodofratherextensivecoursework,1-2yearsinlength,duringwhichthestudentobtainssupervisedresearchexperiencebyworkingwithfaculty;thisphaseisfollowedbyanexamination;uponsuccessfulcompletion,thestudentundertakesthedissertation,whichissupervisedbyacommitteeoffacultycomprisedofnursingandotheruniversityfaculty.

AreviewofdoctoraleducationinthefourcountriesintheAmericassuggeststhattheyaredesignedintheNorthAmericanmodel,whichcannowbecalledthe"PanAmericanModel."

Clearly,eachcountrythatbeginsdoctoraleducationhasbeeninfluencedbythedevelopmentsindoctoralstudyintheprecedingcountries;yet,itissignificantthateachcountryhasdevelopeditseducationalprogramsinamannerthatbestfitswithinitsownuniquehistoricalandculturaltraditions,stateofscience,thehealthcareneedsofthepopulation,andhealthmanpowerneeds.Inallcases,thepurposeofdoctoralstudyistoprepareleadersinnursingandhealthcare,withanemphasisonknowledgedevelopment.Thereisaclearcomponentofcoursework,supervisedresearch,andthedissertation/thesisrequirement.Allcountrieshavestatedthattheyfollowtheoverallrequirementsofdoctoraleducationwithinthehomeuniversitysetting,andaresubjecttothemonitoringandcontrolmechanismsinplaceintheiruniversitiesandcountries.Clearly,eachcountrythatbeginsdoctoraleducationhasbeeninfluencedbythedevelopmentsindoctoralstudyintheprecedingcountries;yet,itissignificantthateachcountryhasdevelopeditseducationalprogramsinamannerthatbestfitswithinitsownuniquehistoricalandculturaltraditions,stateofscience,thehealthcareneedsofthepopulation,andhealthmanpowerneeds.

Collaborativepartnershipsareevidentacrossinstitutionstoaddressinequalityofmanpowerdistribution,ortobetteruseresourcesandshareexpertise;collaborationcanbeseenacrosscountriesaswell,totakeadvantageofmoreexperiencedteamsofexpertsduringinitialstagesofprogramdevelopment.

Therearelikelytobedifferencesaswell;however,thelevelofdetailatwhichthisreportwascompiledwasnotcapableofdetectingspecificwaysinwhichdifferencescouldbeexhibited.Thereappearstobeapreponderantusemadeofdoctoralgraduatesinacademicandteachingroles,reflectingthecurrentneedsofthecountries.Towhatextentdodifferentcountriesmakeuseofindividualspreparedwiththedoctorateinpolicyroleswithinhealthcareorindustryisnotknown.

ThepatternwithinCanadianinstitutionsappearstobeacombinationoftheEuropeanmodelandtheAmericanmodel.TheextentofrequiredcourseworkappearslessextensivethanwithintheU.S.A.andpursuitofindividualresearchwithasupervisorappearstobeginatapplicationorsoonthereafter.

Recommendations

Indiscussinginternationalperspectivesondoctoralprogramqualityindicators,NevesArrudaanddeSilva(1999)presentthreedimensionsforevaluatingqualityfromtheSouthAmericanperspective;thesearethesocio-political,technical,andsubjective.Thesocio-politicaldimensionencompassestheproductionandtransmissionofknowledge;italsoincorporatesthedevelopmentofanationalidentity,values,attitudesandbehaviorsthatmakelifepossibleinademocraticandparticipativesociety.Itinvolvesthedevelopmentofthecapacitytobeproductiveinacriticalandcreativemanner,communicateeffectively,andworkinteams.

Thetechnicaldimensionaddressestheprogramofstudiesandeducationalexperiencesandenvironmentsthatenablethedevelopmentofexpertiseaswellasopendiscussionandrespectforintellectualandideologicaldiversity.

Thesubjectivedimensionaddressestheaffectivedomainsuchassatisfactionwiththeeducationalexperienceandwiththelevelofcompetenceattainedtofunctioneffectivelywithinthesocialandprofessionalenvironments.

Collectively,thesedimensionscallforththeneedtodevelopcompetenciesthatmeetinternaldisciplinarydemands,aswellastheneedsofthelearner,bothintellectualandsubjective;theyalsoaddresstheneedtomeetexternalsocietalneedsbothinproducingexpertsaswellasactivecitizen/scientistswhoshapehealthandsocialpolicythroughtheuseoftheirexpertise.

Theextenttowhichtheaboveelementshavevalidityforothercountries,itwouldbeimportanttodeterminewhetherthedoctoralprogramsintheAmericassystematicallyincorporatetheseelements.Thecurrentdatadidnotyieldsufficientinformationtomakethisdetermination.

Thetrendwithinthepastdecadetofocusdoctoralcurriculumsonthestudyandcreationofdisciplinarynursingknowledgehasclearlytakenhold,andappearstobethedirectionforthecountriesreviewed.Forcountriesintheprocessofdevelopingdoctoralprogramsthisshouldbeanimportantconsideration.Itisalsoimportantforeachcountrytoidentifyitsuniqueneeds,educationalandsocialtraditions,anddesigndoctoralprogramsthatwillberesponsivetothoseneeds.Thus,atwo-prongedapproachisrecommended,wherebynewdoctoralprogramsattempttolearnfromlessonsofotherswhohavetraveledthisroadbefore,whileatthesametime,heedingtheimperativesoftheirownsituationsandsocieties.

ThereisaclearneedtodevelopthesocialconsciousnessofstudentsregardingtheirbroadersocietalresponsibilitieswithinAmericas.AnecdotalevidencewouldsuggestthatcurrentlytheindividualswhohavedevelopedthecapacitiesthatNevesArrudaanddeSilva(1999)talkaboutaresmallinnumber.Thepresenceoffacultyrolemodelswithindoctoralprogramsinthisregardisnotknown.

Newdoctoralprogramsshouldclearlybearinmindthehealthcareneedsinthecountries/regionsinwhichtheyarelocatedsoastoberesponsivetosociety.Thetypeofeducationalandresearchexperiencesdesignedforstudentsneedtoincorporatetheimperativesofsocietyaswellasthatofthedisciplineofnursing,sothatnursescholarscanbeseenasrelevant,ratherthanstandingapartfromthesocietieswithinwhichtheyfunction.

Atthepresenttimethereisnoclearevidenceofthepresenceofinternationalperspectiveswithintheprogramsinthecountriesexamined.

AfeaturenotedinBrazilisinstructive.BrazilisreportedtohaveongoingprojectstoaddressthedevelopmentneedswithinLatinAmerica,partofwhichistoprovideassistancetoothercountriesindevelopingtheirdoctoralprograms.ThismodelcanhavemajorimpactinregionaldevelopmentifadoptedbythecountriesinNorthAmerica,especiallyCanadaandtheUnitedStates.Knowledgeabouthealthcareneedsandnursinginothercountriestendstobeacquiredrandomlyorthroughindividualefforts,ratherthansystematicallydevelopedaspartofaprogramofstudy.Manynursingprogramsarenowprovidingoptionalinternationalexperiencestodoctoralstudents.Also,anincreasingnumberoffacultiesareworkinginothercountriestocollaborateinresearchandotherareas.However,theseareinthemainindividualinitiatives.ThoseinstitutionswithWorldHealthOrganizationCollaboratingCentersareprovidingbroaderinstitutionallevelleadershipthatpromisestohavemorelastingimpact.However,thenumberoftheseinstitutionsisquitesmall.AfeaturenotedinBrazilisinstructive.BrazilisreportedtohaveongoingprojectstoaddressthedevelopmentneedswithinLatinAmerica,partofwhichistoprovideassistancetoothercountriesindevelopingtheirdoctoralprograms.ThismodelcanhavemajorimpactinregionaldevelopmentifadoptedbythecountriesinNorthAmerica,especiallyCanadaandtheUnitedStates.

TheregionoftheAmericashasover40countries,spanningfromtheveryrichtotheverypoornations.Manycountrieshavedirehealthandmanpowerneeds.Atpresentonlyfourcountriesofferdoctoraleducationinnursing.Asystematicplancanbeputinplacetobetterusetheexpertiseavailablewithintheregiontoassistothercountrieswherethistypeofnursingdevelopmentisindicated.Regionalorganizations,foundations,selectedinstitutions,andnon-governmentalagencies/organizationsallcanplayanimportantroleinachievingthisgoalinanorganizedmanner.Inthisvein,itisworthnotingthatanewgroup,TheInternationalNetworkforDoctoralEducationinNursing,hasbeenformed,andtheexpertiseofitsmembers,drawnfrom25countries,isextensive;thisgroupisinapositiontoprovideleadershiptoassistinthistypeoforganizedeffort;thisinternationalnetworkiscurrentlydevelopinginternationalstandardsandqualityindicatorsfordoctoraleducationforconsideration.

Manycountriesoftheworld,especiallywithinAsiaandAfrica,aresystematicallybuildingvariouscollaborativemodelsintheirdoctoralprograms.Someofthesemodelsareinnovativeandarebeingtestednow.Othersareusingdistancelearningstrategiesandtechnologiesincombinations.Thereisaneedtosystematicallyevaluatethesestrategiesastheyemergesolessonscanbelearnedforthebenefitofall.

Authors

ShakéKetefian,EdD,RN,FAAN
E-mail:ketefian@umich.edu

ShakéKetefian,EdD,RN,FAAN,Professor;DirectorofDoctoral/PostdoctoralStudiesandInternationalAffairs,UniversityofMichigan,SchoolofNursing,400NorthIngalls,AnnArbor,MI48109,USA;Dr.KetefianisalsotheChairpersonoftheInternationalNetworkforDoctoralEducationinNursing[URL:www.umich.edu/~inden/]

Tel.:734/764-9454;FAX:734/763-6668.

EloitaPereiraNeves,DNSc,RN
E-mail:eloitan@bol.com.br

EloitaPereiraNeves,DNSc,RN,isaformerprofessorofnursingattheNursingDoctoralProgram-FederalUniversityofSantaCatarina,FlorianopolisSCandVisitingProfessor,StateUniversityofRiodeJaneiro,Rua28deSetembro174RiodeJaneiro,RJBrazil

MariaGabyGutiérrez,PhD,RN
E-mail:mggutierrez@denf.epm.br

MariaGabyGutiérrez,PhD,RN,isarepresentativeofnursingatCAPES,MinistryofEducation-CoordinationofHigherEducationandaProfessor,attheFederalUniversityofSaoPaulo,Brazil

References

Grace,H.(1978).Thedevelopmentofdoctoraleducationinnursing:Anhistoricalperspective.JournalofNursingEducation,17(4),17-27.

Ketefian,S.,&Redman,R.W.(2001).Globalperspectivesongraduatenursingeducation:Opportunitiesandchallenges.InChaska,N.(Ed.),TheNursingProfession:TomorrowandBeyond.ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications(Pp.219-231).

Murphy,J.F.(1981).Doctoraleducationin,of,andfornursing:Anhistoricalanalysis.NursingOutlook,29(11),645-649.

NevesArruda,E.&deSilva,A.L.(1999).Settingthestage:Internationalperspectivesonqualityindicatorsindoctoralprogramsinnursing.PaperpresentedattheInternationalNetworkforDoctoralEducationinNursingconference,June1999,London,England.[PaperavailableonURL:www.umich.edu/~inden/].

Neves,E.P.&Mauro,M.Y.C.(2000).NursinginBrazil:Trajectory,ConquestsandChallenges.OnlineJournalofIssuesinNursing[PaperavailableonURL:www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No1Jan01/ArticlePreviousTopic/NursinginBrazil.aspx]

Redman,R.W.&Ketefian,S.(1997).Thechangingfaceofgraduateeducation.InMcCloskey,J.C.&Grace,H.K.(Eds.).Currentissuesinnursing.St.Louis:Mosby-YearBook,Inc.(160-168).FifthEdition.


©2001OnlineJournalofIssuesinNursing
ArticlepublishedMay31,2001

References

Grace, H. (1978). The development of doctoral education in nursing: An historical perspective. Journal of Nursing Education, 17(4), 17-27.

Ketefian, S., & Redman, R.W. (2001). Global perspectives on graduate nursing education: Opportunities and challenges. In Chaska, N. (Ed.), The Nursing Profession: Tomorrow and Beyond. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications (Pp. 219-231).

Murphy, J.F. (1981). Doctoral education in, of, and for nursing: An historical analysis. Nursing Outlook, 29(11), 645-649.

Neves Arruda, E. & de Silva, A.L. (1999). Setting the stage: International perspectives on quality indicators in doctoral programs in nursing. Paper presented at the International Network for Doctoral Education in Nursing conference, June 1999, London, England. [Paper available on URL: www.umich.edu/~inden/].

Neves, E.P. & Mauro, M.Y.C. (2000). Nursing in Brazil: Trajectory, Conquests and Challenges. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing [Paper available on URL: www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No1Jan01/ArticlePreviousTopic/NursinginBrazil.aspx]

Redman, R.W. & Ketefian, S. (1997). The changing face of graduate education. In McCloskey, J.C. & Grace, H. K. (Eds.). Current issues in nursing. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, Inc. (160-168). Fifth Edition.

Citation: Ketefian S., Neves E., Gutiérrez M. (May 31, 2001) "Nursing Doctoral Education in the Americas" Online Journal of Issues in Nursing. Vol. 6  No. 2.